THE SOCIO POLITICAL ECONOMIC RELIGIOUS CONDITION IN INDIA BEFORE THE ADVENT OF MAHAVIRA

THE SOCIO POLITICAL ECONOMIC RELIGIOUS CONDITION IN INDIA BEFORE THE ADVENT OF MAHAVIRA

Dharma has no beginning and it will have no end also. Whether dharma (religion) is eternal if it is the question then the answer is this. Yes, it is. But the terms Jaina and dharma are not eternal. Sometimes they came into vogue and in course of time they might disappear. Jain tradition is indeed ancient, but the word Jaina is not very old. The older Sramana dharma is the originator of the present Jain Dharma. In other words the Jain Dharma is the successor of the older Sramana Dharma. In Indian philosophy and religion the Sramana tradition has a hoary past. By the arhats, it was developed and enriched. The first arhat was Rsabha Dev according to Jainism.

Rasbha Dev was a pioneer in the field of agriculture, commerce and trade including crafts as a king. For the good of the subjects he developed as an example in all the aforesaid areas. A social organization and administrative machinery had been set up by him. In pursuit of spiritual attainments he became an ascetic. As an arhat he was canonized. When human civilization was in its infancy these events belonged to that point of time.

In organized communities primitive people were being settled in villages and arhat Rsabha lit the fire into every heart which burnt in himself. Till the time of Parsva nath, the twenty third tirathankar, the tradition of the arhats flowed. Parsva nath was a historical figure. The earlier arhats are considered to be pre-historic.

Collective spiritual discipline was vitalized by Bhagvan Parsva nath. The practice of self mortification based on ignorance had been opposed by him. A spiritual orientation had been given by him. He had to face serious difficulties during his life time because of his determined opposition to sheer mortification, however painful they may be. One who treads the path of friendliness and non-violence must oppose himsa and face the consequences. In his mission Parsva nath succeeded. During his period the Sramanas started wielding considerable influence and it was the influence of Ahimsa. Hence he was very popular among his followers both Brahmins and sramanas and his greatness was acknowledged.

For PARSVA Bhagvan Mahavir used the epithet PURUSADANIYA which means leader of the people or worshipped by the people. The philosophy of spiritualism and selfrealisation as against materialism and natural of worship had been popularized and strengthened by Bhagavan PARSVA whose followers were the parents of Mahavira and his maternal uncle CHETAKA, the head of the Licchavi republic of Vaisali. This was a great achievement which was inherited by Mahavira and Goutam Buddha and several other arhats of the Sramana system.

The time cycle has been divided into two categories in the sacred books of Jains. The ascending spiral and the descending spiral, during each of which twenty four Tirthankaras appeared in India and preached the religion.

In the descending spiral which is running of course now 24 Tirthankars appeared of whom Shri Rishava Deva was the first and Sri Mahavira was the last. The religion of the sramanas or of the Nirgranthas, currently called Jainism had been preached by the Tirthankaras.

Except for the slight variations which can be sometimes remarked in the rites and observances, all the Tirthankaras have preached the same religion.

To a brief consideration of the political, economic, social and religious condition of the then India it can be enumerated at the time of Mahavira’s Birth.

THE POLITICAL CONDITION

Into a congeries of many small independent states India was divided then. Extending over the whole or even the major part of the then India there was no great empire. Due to disastrous war of Mahabharata, the power of the Kshyatriyas had been extinct almost. To enable a hero or an heroic family there had not yet had a revival powerful enough to establish a great empire. Even on very trifling grounds the rulers of petty states engaged in frequent conflicts among themselves. As a result much of the power of the Kshyatriyas left no opportunity to any king for acquiring any considerable strength. The time we are referring to was the end of seventh century B.C. and the beginning of the sixth century B.C.

Following kingdoms were there in the north India at that time.

1. Gandhara, 2. Sindhu – Sauvira3. Avanti, 4. Matsya, 5. Kuru, 6. Panchala, 7. Vatsa, 8. Malla, 9. Koshala, 10. Kasi, 11. Vajji, 12. Videh, 13. Anga & 14. Magadha.

But we come across the names of about 25 kingdoms which were known as Aryan Kingdoms. There was not a single kingdom among these which could establish its sovereignty over the others. Magadha was able to acquire some strength, it is true no doubt. As to extend the frontiers of its kingdom to any remarkable extent, it could not become so strong even then. It could not annex the kingdom of videha to its own though Magadha defeated the Lichhavis in the battle of Vaishali by destroying the city of Vaishali.

In those days most of the kingdoms were monarchical. In existence there was also democracy, combined with some other families to establish a kingdom the families could not protect their own independence by their individual strength. From among its members each family or sub- clan at first selected a leader. Subsequently such leaders were addressed as kings or Rajas who exercised royal powers over these families or sub – clans. To form greater kingdoms, these petty chieftains combined and selected from among themselves one as the supreme ruler. Relating to war and defence etc the kings of all these clans used to meet together to discuss and decide important questions. There is a mention of nine sub – clans of the Mallas and nine of the Lichhavis in the Jain Scriptures. The supreme head of this federal democracy was the king CHETAKA. Some other democratic kingdoms also were mentioned in, Jain and Buddhist literatures.

In the eastern region there were two systems of government. Anga, Magadha & Vatsa were the monarchies. On the other hand Kasi, Videha and Kausala were republics. The republics of the Vajjis or  Lichhavis and that of Mallas were quite well known. These republics were later developments of monarchies and the precursors of democracies. With a view to consolidating their political power the Lichhavis founded their republics and its credit goes to CHETAKA for its foundations. He was a wise and valorous king of Videha and he was the president of the whole Republic.

The vast Indian Sub – continent was divided into a number of tiny kingdoms about two thousand and five hundred years ago. But there was nobody competent enough to bind these states into a single political unit although geographical expanse of the country was much larger than what it is today at that particular point of time. There was no central political leadership nor emperor or Chakravarti as we understand to day.

The biggest unit was videha with its Capital at Vaishali, which was divided into three zones. With golden domes the first zone consisted of seven thousand residential houses. With silver domes the middle of the town consisted of fourteen thousand houses. With copper domes the third zone consisted of twenty one thousand houses. These three zones were inhabited by the high, middle and lower classes respectively. Vaisali was the Capital of the entire Vajji Republic. Each at a distance of two miles from the other it was enclosed within four city walls.

It had several ramparts and entrance gates. This republic was a confederation of six clans. They were “Ugras”, the bhojas “the Rajanyasa”, “The IKSYAKUS (the Lichhavis)”. “The Jnatas” and the Kauravas”.

Into two units the Malla Republic was divided. One in the north – west with its Capital at Kusinara and the other in the south - east with PAVA as its Capital. In the east towards the river Gandaka it extended as far. Upto Gorakhapur it extended in the west. It extended up to Nepal and the river Ganga respectively in the north and the south.

Its GANA NAYAKAS were the members of the powerful Vajji Republic, although it was an autonomous political unit.

In the north of the Gangas which divided the Vajji from Magadha the centre of the vajji Republic lay in Videha.

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

In the Universal law of nature, Change is immutable. By this law the rise and fall of human beings are determined along with their strength & weakness of movements. Within a couple of centuries of his nirvan the movement of ahimsa and self – discipline began to lose its momentum launched by Bhagavan Parsva during his life time. Bhagavan MAHAVIRA found social values in the melting pot when he started his career. At that time by brutal force the society was governed and ruled. Kings had become deified. To acknowledge their sovereignty their subjects were forced in order to bear the yoke of tyranny as a matter of duty.

For the kings that their edicts to be treated as divine decrees the royal priests had whipped up such a psychosis of respect. To merely invite vengeance in the society was to oppose them. In the society wealth had began to be worshipped. In the name of the rich and poor, the society was divided. Human beings were converted into slaves after they were purchased. They were treated as cattle or the beasts of burden. In any way they liked, that the masters were entitled to punish them. Between men and men royal power and the power of wealth forced a division. Human equality and unity became eclipsed on the whole in the society as principle. Social discrimination had been encouraged in casteism. Untouchables were the Sudras. According to the status of his caste, power and wealth man’s worth was measured. Human intelligence came to be taken in that line only. In the wealthy and that of inferiority in the poor this regulated in a sense of superiority. In developing such a situation, the popular faith in the distorted doctrine of karma contributed its share. With the suffering in this life, the wretched were supposed to have been born with the evil effects of their misdeeds, in the past life which they must pay for. With patience they were expected to bear their present miseries.

Education was limited to the rich few only in those days. By physical labour only the common man lived silently. To raise his voice against injustice he was not at all awakened and entitled.

At that point of time two main traditions of religion were there in the society. One is Sramana and the other is Vedic. Into several sanghas or monastic orders the Sramanas were organized. The most highly enlightened leaders of these organizations were termed as Tirthankaras. In Vedic tradition there were several sects also. The Vedic tradition RSIS were thesists while the sages of the Upanishadas professed the philosophy of the Brahmins. Some of the Sramanas Acharyas were also theists who professed the philosophy of Nirvana and Atma.

In resolving the profound mysteries of the Universe many religious teachers were seriously engaged. Through meditation and ascetic practices some of them tried to comprehend truth. Others attempted to do so through worship and spells. All violence committed for the propitiation of the gods as proper and legitimate and performed animal sacrifice in case of those who worshipped Sakti, the cosmic power and practised charms looked upon. In order to secure heaven rituals were performed. That the ritual of bathing in water led to self purification as it was believed then. Many ascetics performed penance by beating their bodies with the aggregate of five fires burnt around their bodies under the scorching heat of the sun on the basis of the doctrine that the mortification of the body leads to liberation. On the sharp edges of the iron nails some of the ascetics went to the extent of lying down.

Predominantly it was an age of religion. In the life of the spirit the kings and their subjects had deep belief. Than that of the state the status of religion was much higher. Though they were in a negligible minority, there were also those who repudiated religion though they did not command respect in the society. It came to acquire considerable prestige for those who practised that is why. In all the sects the number of ascetics was fairly large. From village to village hundreds of monks were seen wondering in groups, though they belonged to diverse sects and sub – sects engaged each other in metaphysical discussions to understand each other’s point of view.

The subduing of passions as indispensable was not looked upon by the votaries of sakti sadhakas. The spiritualists considered it, Sine qua non of course. Without getting freedom from the passions of attachment and aversion, they therefore maintained that one could not attain liberation. It is one of the instincts of man naturally is the attachment to material comforts and sensuous pleasures. It leads mankind to clash of interests. To seek for spiritual solutions as by necessity people are driven when conflicts reach their climax. To the advent of a great spiritual leader this situation is a prelude in order to lift the society to a higher stage of spiritual development. Society takes a leap when the psychological background for a change has been set up.

ECONOMIC CONDITION

India was then far advanced in commerce. Merchants used to go to various foreign countries for trade in big ships from the ports situated on the banks of great rivers & seas. To such sea – borne trade there is abundant reference in Jain literature. Laden with various merchandise which they collected from the country the traders used to embark on sea – voyage in great ships well – guarded and accompanied by many attendants. They would sell their own commodities in the foreign country and purchase special commodities from that country not available elsewhere. In another country they would sell these special commodities and earned plenty of wealth in this way.

There is a mention of traders who had about forty million gold coins buried in the earth, forty million invested in commerce in the Jain scriptures. They had four pastures each of which boasted ten thousand heads of cattle and other domestic animals with forty million worth of property. Much more riches of other kinds had been possessed by them also. In many storied beautiful buildings these wealthy traders lived in pomp and splendour luxuriously. Surrounded by numerous attendants. They were maintaining luxurious harems of their choice with beautiful women up to hundreds. In such voluptuous luxury their children could not know when the day goes and the night comes.

Than the foreign trade inland trade was no whit less extensive. Merchants used to carry cartloads of merchandise from one part of the country to another for commerce accompanied by escorts. By means of boats between places situated on the banks of rivers commerce was carried on in this way. Untold wealth was earned by merchants by all kinds of trade and commerce. But the economic condition of the lower classes of the people was very pathetic and it was as low as that of the higher classes was high.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Everywhere the social order founded by Brahmins prevailed. They exercised an undisputed authority in society as they were at the top. With war like pursuits, the Kshatriyas were occupied and in the hands of the Vaishayas the entire commerce and economic arrangements were kept intact. Sudras were engaged in servile labour. They were poor and neglected being the people of the lowest strata of society. Caste had become hereditary. The Brahmins were fond of pomp and show and had become formalistic. That is why the word Brahmin came to be interpreted in a new way in the Jain and Buddhist scriptures. Abundant wealth was earned by vaishyas and that is why they wallowed in luxury and all sorts of vices. The condition of women was good it cannot be said at all. As a domestic property among all properties, wives were regarded. Rich people and Kings had many wives. Women were carried away as a booty during the times of war. As the objects of their personal enjoyment some women were included by the plunderers. And some of them were sold in the market publicly. As many male members died in the battles, polygamy may have prevailed on account of this fact pertaining to the excessive luxury and sensuality of the people.

Among the women of the higher classes there was some prevalence of education but more among those of the lower classes. Men of the first three higher classes received good education. Some knowledge of warfare was acquired by the Vaishyas.

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

Vedic ritualism prevailed everywhere with Brahminism in great vogue. Rich Brahmins and Kshyatriyas performed sacrifices with great pomp and ceremony in every town and village. Thousand innocent animals were killed ruthlessly without any hindrance. Monism of the upanishad began to be preached among the mass. The number of sramana ascetics was also increasing who denounced the slaughter of animals in the sacrifices. They preached the religion of Ahimsa.

Of the community of the NIRGRANTHAS founded by Lord Parshwanath there are many descriptions of the Sadhus described in the jain scriptures. Only 250 years before the Nirvan of Mahavira Parshwanath had attained Nirvan. Hence about the existence of the sramanas community founded by Parshwanath there can be no room for any doubt. As a result of constant wars and battles accumulation of excessive wealth among the rich it would not be unreasonable to assume that a reaction had set in the society on the miserable plight of the people of the lower classes caused by the hatred of the Brahmins and social persecution etc. We find many religious communities Cropping up during this period because of the reaction. There is mention of six Tirthankars in the Buddhist scriptures. They are as follows – 1. Sanjaya Velatthiputta, 2. PAKUDHA KACHCHAYANA, 3. AJITA KESHAKAMVALI, 4. MANKHALIPUTTA GOSHALAKA, 5. PURNA KASHYAPA, 6. NIGANTHA NATAPUTTA or MAHAVIRA.

There were 63 religious communities. Religious communities have been classified into four principal divisions and 363 sub-divisions in the Jain scriptures. The former being Kriyavadins those who believed that it is the soul that acts and is entangled in the web of its own karma. Those who disbelieved the existence of soul are Akriyavadins. They are entangled in Karma or action.

AJNANAVADINS are those who believed that tapas or austerities alone could lead to liberation and not knowledge. Vinayavadins are those who regarded salvation as attainable by right conduct only. The killings of animals in the scarifies had been denounced by the preachers of all these religions.

Hence there was a strong reaction against the excessive luxury and voluptuousness of the rich and the oppression of the lower classes had set in accompanied by an intense religious seeking. The Ajivikas went naked and were engaged in harsh self-motification. We shall be able to conceive something of the ideal if we view Mahavira’s life of renunciation, self-discipline and austeries in this perspective.