Sadhana Period

SADHANA PERIOD

Vardhamana needed no security after becoming an ascetic. With whatever purpose he came, vardhamana began to treat everyone as a welcome visitor. With the resolution his life of spiritual discipline began. To the highest liberation he dedicated himself. In his physical body he no longer interested all kind of calamities brought by God or by human agencies on animals had been borne by him. From the path of Sadhana in no case he deviated.

Of his spiritual strength this was an exhibition. In every man the spirit of spiritual strength is inherent. To enable them to speak out what is needed requires a strong will and a week person will keep them dormant.

From the very beginning Vardhamana knew his will and he had been resolute. He was exerted by his will power. To all kinds of fear a man who is irresolute becomes a prey.

He needs security a man who is afraid of Srmana Vardhamana had shed all his fear and had risen above, his old limitations. To be a testing ground of his courage he took the entire world.

In the body fear remains entrenched. To the body one who attaches no importance is never afraid of anything. Vardhamana became fearless by giving up attachment to the body. For the possessions or possessiveness fear is born of the desire. Vardhamana had assumed an attitude of non-possession and became fearless. When we feel that we have enemies fear takes root in us. Because he assumed an attitude of friendliness towards everyone Vardhamana became fearless.

Leading to infinity he began to traverse the path. What was going to happen to him the next day he never thought of. For food, for shelter and for the inclemency of whether he did not care at all. With the renunciation of his interest in his body all the anxieties disappeared.

He began wandering naked by discarding his clothes. With his practice of spiritual discipline even a month long starvation did not interfere. For him the shades as of the forest trees served as home. In houses which had been abandoned or in sequestered temples he took shelter sometimes.

Vardhamana experienced no difficulty at all in any circumstances what so ever. In the evening he arrived at Karamaragrama having left Ksatriya Kundapara. Near the village in a state of meditation he remained standing. The first day was the day of test for him in this place.

From the farm a farm-boy happened to return to the village. A pair of bullocks was with him when he saw a monk standing near by. He left the bullocks with vardhamana and went away in anticipation that he would look after his bullocks. In a short time the bullocks strayed for away while grazing.

In state of intense meditation Vardhamana was all along lost into the depths of his soul. Nothing was visible as it had grown dark completely. After having milked his cows in the village the farm boy returned and he could not trace his bullocks. He enquired of Vardhamana about them. In search of them he went about getting no reply from Sramana. Till late at night he searched for them but in vain. He fell asleep as he was tired. In the morning he got up early and began his search for the bullocks but in vain again. He found the bullocks standing the near the monk when he was returning to the village.  The boy began to feel suspicious about the sramana and he thought him to be a thug. His suspicious was strengthened  when the boy noticed the presence of the bullocks in front of Sramana. He thought the sramana kept them hidden last night. The boy was enraged due to the strength of the wrong conviction and rushed towards the monk to strike him with the rope he carried.

Suddenly Nandivardhan arrived at the spot and intervened. He persuaded the farm-boy to go. Then he addressed to Sramana “you had commanded the status of a prince till yesterday. To offend you nobody could dare. In the position of an insignificant man you are wandering door to door. No security arrangement is there for you. It is really pathetic and unbearable. For you let us make security arrangement”.

Sramana Vardhamana replied 
“The path of equanimity had been chosen by me deliberately. Willingly I adopted the path of Ahimsa. Hence I do not want any security arrangement. In an egocentric body I am no more and I am firmly introverted in myself. For life anymore I don’t have craving. I am not afraid of death at all. They fear death those who have longing for life. One will never have crave for comforts who has no desire to live. I am one of them. The desire for life is an expression of the desire for comforts. I do not crave to live and I do not need comforts. Pleasure & pain, life & death are same for me. I am perfectly secure and not undefended”.

In a serene voice he continued by saying that life is as natural as death. Fear needs security for life. Hence no fear means no requirement of protection.

On hearing all this Nandivardhan was surprised and stunned. Although he wanted to speak he could not. Cleverly he said “you are a Mahavira”. If you want I can provide you protection.

Sramana replied calmly & quietly as follows.

“From others an Arhat needs no help at all now or never. Through their spiritual exertion they achieve the state of perfect knowledge as well as liberation”.

With this bold declaration Sramana Vardhamana was declared as MAHAVIRA only.

Nandivardhan said- “you are indeed a Mahavira Bhagavan. Your spiritual achievements, your resolution, your constancy, your fearlessness cannot be thought of by us. In the world of give and take we live. Hence we cannot be so indifferent”.

Really Nandivardhan was correct as there was hardly any exaggeration in his gestures. To take any interest in truth the involvements in the world do not allow people at all. With truth the spirituality minded people identify their interest and as a result in worldly affairs they are not interested at all. With a silver spoon in his mouth the image of Bhagavan Mahavira which Nandivardhan had in mind was that of a prince and of course of a brother too in the middle of comforts of the palace. Unknown with no certainty and of a shelter he saw his brother wandering alone. For having abandoned his brother is in difficulties He could not relish the prospect of people criticizing him. In a different world Bhagavan Mahavira lived.

Mahavira found that while an extrovert was bound by external ties an introvert was always free. Within himself he experienced freedom and truth. We lose sight of the existence within when we get attached to the external world. We become free from the worries of the external world. Once we become aborbed in the existence within. This state had been attained by Mahavira already. Hence he did not care a fig for anything including his body life and death. He began to lead the life of a wandering ascetic being absolutely conteneded and carefree.

During the period of their Sadhana most of the Sadhakas like to live at one place only. But Mahavira wandered from place to place contrary to this. That one whose mind is not stable will not be able to concentrate even if he did not wander. A wandering state will have the least effect on him whose mind is fixed on the other hand. Also how can one remain confined to any place who has renounced possessiveness.

To a particular place an aspirant to freedom cannot tie himself. In accordance with the laws of nature, Mahavira had not yet transcended the body and as such its motion was inevitable. He had to move his body although he remained motionless during the greater part of the day and night. Mahavira was not at all an extremist while wandering. Neither motion nor motionlessness absolutely favoured by Mahavira. Between the two he had affected a synthesis.

THERE SHOULD BE EQUALITY AMONG ALL LIVING BEING

During the period of Sadhana mostly Bhagavan Mahavira observed fasting. The period of spiritual discipline commenced in the life of Vardhamana. He took the vow at the very out set that for twelve years he would not take any care of his body He would quietly endure all obstacles suffering and pain inflicted on him by the gods, men and animals. He would entertain nothing, but feelings of forgiveness equality towards his persecutors.   

with this resolve, from place to place he wandered practising self-comfort, austerities, continence, forbearance, renunciation, contentment and reflecting on the path of liberation.

All by himself he started from Jnata-Sadhana-Vana and reached village Kummara. He went into meditation with the thought of passing the night there in that place. He broke his fast with the alms received at the house of a Brahmin. He arrived at an Ashram called Duiijjanta after a few month’s wandering through various places on the out skirts of the Morak colony with the intention of staying at one place during the four months of rainy season. The head of this Ashram was a friend of king Siddhartha. But Vardhamana stayed there only a few days and found that the place lacked a peaceful atmosphere. And his stay there might not be pleasant to the Ashramites. Hence he went away to a village called Asthika to pass his CHATURMASYA covering the rainy season. Most of his time Vardhamana observed silence and practised meditation with hard austerities.

With an unflinching firmness he would endure whatever suffering pain or persecution came to him from sources spiritual, heavenly or material. All hatred, shame and fear had been completely conquered by him. He would not be affected in the least by any physical pain however terrible it might be because he had risen beyond all false identification of his self with the body. Neither biting cold nor grilling heat could overpower him.

He would stand on a boulder and meditate under the scorching sun in summer or walk through the sun-baked fields and when the chill gusts blew in winter the ascetics became anxious to find some shelter and clothes or fire to warm themselves, Vardhamana would be meditating in the open air without covering his body. Also he would not even think of any shelter or fire or covering his body at any time.

He would remain absorbed in a constant endeavour to cross the ocean of the world by an extermination of the arch enemy “KARMA” observing a complete equality in regard to help and harm, pleasure and pain, life & death, insult and honour. He stayed at a single place during the four months of every rainy season. He wandered on foot from place to place at other times. Keeping his eyes fixed on the path before him, he walked with quiet steps, lest he should trample any insect underfoot.

He stayed at a vacant or deserted house while travelling wherever he went or in a crematorium or any solitary place. He would be engaging in austerities most of the days in fasting or in meditation. Fixed quantity of dry coarse, or light food obtained by begging had been taken by him while breaking his fast. He would silently pass to another house for fear of being an obstacle to their getting of alms if he saw that any other mendicant or any animal or bird was waiting for food at the very house to which he went for begging.

Vardhamana started from the village Asthika after the expire of the four months of the rainy season. He began to travel various places as usual. He came to a place by name “North VACHALA”. There was the abode of a fierce venomous serpent which had the power of immediately consuming one to ashes by a mere glance at him. People at once asked him not to go further finding him going that way. But he proceeded even after their caution. He reached the hole in which the serpent was staying. At the mouth of the pit he fell into deep meditation and stood still. The serpent rushed out of the hole in rage but was unable to burn him as it was doing to others. Thrice he bit his feet in rage but was astonished to find the lord perfectly unmoved even at its bitings.

Vardhamana addressed the serpent calmly “ ‘O, Chanda Kaushika” “to mend your rough attitude it is not yet too late take heed”. At the Lord’s face the serpent looked up. To its ears the words “Chand kaushik” sounded familiar and set it thinking.

The serpent obtained JATIS-MARANA-JNANA (knowledge of the previous births) by a sudden upheaval of thought that stirred up dormant memories. It remembered its past lives and the misdeeds it had committed. It flung itself at the feet of the lord stung by an overpowering remorse. The serpent heard the spiritual precepts from Vardhamana. From that day the serpent gave up the idea of pursuing the course of violence. It began repenting its misdeeds and lay at the mouth of its hole starving and immobile. The serpent died after fifteen days in great peace and was reborn in heaven.

For fifteen days and even a month Vardhamana sometimes fasted during this period. In the second rainy season he then reached Nalanda and spent there for four months. A young mendicant  Mankhali GOSHALAKA, the would be founder of the AJIVIKA sect was then spending the four months period at Nalanda. He became the disciple of Vardhamana impressed by the austerities, contemplation and desirelessness of the latter.

In the company of Goshalaka Vardhamana went to the town of champa and spent there the third rainy season during the course of his journey. Long meditation had been practised by him during this period with much harder austerities like fasting for two months etc.

Practising severe self-discipline and strenuous meditation Vardhamana continued his wandering from place to place. Goshalaka left him in the sixth year his wandering and six months later he rejoined him again.

In the tenth year of Vardhamana’s initiation Goshalaka left him again by proclaiming  himself as leader of the AJIVIKA sect and a Tirthankar. Vardhamana was subjected to many inhuman atrocities but he bore them all with a calm mind during this period.

Jain scriptures speak of many gods having attempted by cruel tortures to deflect Mahavira from his path of self-discipline. They are called “upasargas” in Jain terminology those inflicted by god among these tortures and outrages.

A god by name SAMGAMAKA gave him terrible physical pain but failed to disturb him in any way. He began to accompany him on his begging round and contaminated food he would receive as alms. Vardhamana gave up begging quietly and set in deep meditation.

On Vardhamana SAMGAMAKA inflicted unspeakable tortures for six months but failed miserably and fell at his feet. Then begged forgiveness and returned to his own place. At Vrajadham Vardhamana broke his six months fast after the departure of the terrible god.

During his wandering Govt officials took him for a thief and were about to hang him. But the loop of the cord snapped seven times in succession. They were surprised and frightened and at last let him off. He was simply silent in all these cases.

Vardhamana went to kaushambi in the twelfth year of his initiation and took a vow that he would break his fast only when an enslaved princess would offer him boiled pulse from a corner of a window.

Otherwise he would continue his fast as usual. That too the princess should be shaven headed and fettered feet in tears and tired out with three day’s fasting. In Jain terminology this kind of extremely difficult vow is called Abhigraha. After having taken this vow, Vardhamana would go out every day in the streets of the Kushambi and not receiving any alms under condition of his vow, returned to his abode and quietly went into meditation. One day he received some boiled pulse as alms from the hand of Chandana and broke his fast having fasted for five months and twenty five days.

In the house of rich merchant chandana was living as a slave girl, daughter of Dadhivahana the king of Anga. Wandering through many villages and towns Vardhamana left Kaushambi and came to champa where he spent four months of the rainy season in the sacrificial house of a Brahmin named Swatidatta who put him many questions to which Vardhamana replied.

When the four months period was over Vardhamana left Champa.

Then he went wandering to a village called Chhammni and stayed. On the outskirts of it he absorbed in meditation. He went to Madhyama PAWA departing from the village Chhammni. In this way Vardhamana came to be known as MAHAVIRA by an unflinching endurance of all pain torture and persecution with perfect equality of mind. In illuminating and perfuming his soul with an unexampled knowledge, matchless vision, unparallel conduct, simplicity, forbearance and forgiveness freedom silence, contentment, truth, self-discipline and askesis Mahavira passed more than twelve long years.

In the course of his wandering from place to place it reached the thirteenth year of his yogic life through the outskirts of the village called Jambira situated on the bank of the river Rijuvaluka near the temple of a yaksha by name vaijavritta.

“KEVALA JNANA”, the absolute knowledge was attained by Mahavira at last. In the heaven the trumpets of the gods sounded.

IN THE WOMB THERE IS RESOLUTION

IN THE WOMB THERE IS RESOLUTION

In the world there are certain things which we cannot believe in easily. In those things we are accustomed to believe in which we have seen in our own eyes. With the growth of his sense-organs and brain, it is common knowledge that the mind of a child grows. In the mind of a child knowledge is not innate. While he was still in the womb of his mother any one would be surprised if he were told that the son of Trisala commanded extraordinary perception. 

As per experience a child in the womb is not even capable of having sensory knowledge and hence all kind of doubts are created through miraculous events. As an ascetic called Nandan, the child had been born in his previous lives which Trisala had conceived. Long Tapas had been performed by him. Without eating anything he would remain absorbed in meditation for a whole month. Then again another month long meditation had been started.

For years and years together in a series these tapas and meditation lasted. In the life of a saint, service and meditation were blended together. Over the gross ones subtle powers had come to acquire perfect control. He had permanently developed the capacity for PRATYAKSA or direct perception by remaining the effects of karma enveloping his consciousness. Direct perception may be noted as “AVADHI Jnana” or “CLAIRVOYANCE”.

Out of compassion for its mother the child decided not to move and stir during its stay in the womb. It does not want to cause pain to its mother or to anybody else. From time immemorial its soul had been soaked in ahimsa. In compassion it had been immersed. It stopped stirring in the womb of the mother like a jogi lost in meditation.

Trisala became very sad when she did not feel the foetus stirring in the womb. Doubts possessed her. To her attendants she disclosed her condition after some time. What was happening to the queen the king also came to know. The entire household shared the anxiety and sadness of the royal couple.

What was happening in the external world, the unborn child perceived. The whole atmosphere of the palace was pervaded by sadness and anxiety. The cause of sudden change was known to the child. This was reflected in his mind. He thought “the world is mysterious”. For the good of mankind which is done has been regarded as a source of evil. For my mother I have stopped stirring out of compassion. This is the cause of distress to everybody. To gross things only the world is accustomed which is capable of imagining anything”.

Hence the child decided to stir. The face of Trisala beamed with joy when she felt stirring in the womb. Hence the gloom changed into exaltation. Afterwards the palace assumed a festive appearance.

The mental state and ambitions of parents had been reflected for the child in the womb. The child resolved not to become an ascetic after his birth during the life time of his parents out of affection for them.

The child was born after some time. With Universal excitement and joy the birth was celebrated. On that day the mother was the happiest woman in the world. Making her still more cheerful, the dreams she had dreamt and the prophesies made by the sooth-sayers etc began to float in her memory.

 For the safety and security of the child she had conceived. Trisala took every care and practised discipline. During her pregnancy she took meagre meals. All kinds of rich and harmful food had been avoided. On a balanced diet she lived.

By avoiding sadness, anxiety, anger, hatred, jealousy, envy etc. she tried to keep herself cheerful as far as practicable. The entire atmosphere was kept sweet and cheerful. She spoke in soft tone, walked slowly and never laughed aloud. She would not make anykind of hurry nor would sit under the open sky. In the womb of the mother, the best development of the child takes place. For the development of the child the mother is responsible to a very large extent. The mother knows her responsibility. She will certainly give birth to a beautiful child who might be enlightened and valorous. But an ignorant mother gives birth to a child who is timid ugly and unintelligent. Responsibility had been fulfilled  by Trisala successfully. Hence she gave birth to a good child who is beautiful, intelligent and possessed of the best qualities.

With divine characteristics the child was born with a wonderful form, having his breath sweet and fragrant. With a sweet smell, the whole atmosphere was separated. 

The child would be a Dharma Chakravarti was an indication as he did not emit any sweat or dirt from its body. The child was inherently pure in all respects as there was no dirty substance in him. In its body there was nothing unhealing. All the ailments of the body would be destroyed by the purity of the soul.

It is a sacred mystery and need not be explained in terms of the laws of physiology as to why the flesh and blood of the child’s body maintained a white colour according to which the blood of a human being contains white as well as red corpuscles. Even if one variety of these corpuscles is out of the required proportion, diseases develop and the body may die. A balance between the two kinds of corpuscles  might have been maintained by the body of the child so that the colour of its flesh and blood might have remained white like milk.

To have alook at the extraordinary child thousands of people came.

They became exhilarated by the sweet colour emitted by the body of the child.

 At a wonderful moment, the child was born. Mild and pure was the breeze and it was spring. The trees were laden with new leaves and woods were articulated. It was the thirteenth day of the bright half of the Lunar month of chaitra and it was midnight. As the portents were auspicious the planets stood high. With all her cheerfulness and grandeur, nature greeted the birth of the child.

Every particle of the earth was brightened with the rays of the sun and the darkness of the night disappeared. Nature began to appear neat and clean.

Siddhartha was informed by a slave girl that the queen was blessed with a child at this sacred hour. The heart of the king began to throb with Joy and Jubilation which knew no bounds. With invaluable presents the slave girl was rewarded. To the status of a free citizen for ever the slave girl was accorded. The new born baby-prince was to practise in future for the emancipation of the slave girls.

The chief Minister was ordered to celebrate the happy birth of the prince in the most befitting manner by the king as his mind was filled with great expectations and new aspirations. The prisoners were released from the prison as is done on such occasions and the capital was profusely decorated. With all pomp, show and gaity the happy occasion was to be celebrated.

That the poor should be fed free and at cheaper prices all the commodities should be sold in the market as per the order of the king and the shopkeepers were to be compensated suitably for the loss they would suffer. In joyous festivities seven days should be spent by the people of the kingdom as per the announcement for the celebration.

VARDHAMANA

The basic constituents of the Universe are the name and form. With a beautiful form the kings son had been born. To a grand feast all his relatives had been invited by the king. It came up for consideration the question of giving a name to the child. To choose a name for their child, it was customary for the parents. The observation of the king is as follows: - “our family has grown richer in every respect ever since Trisala had conceived the child. By increasing love among the members of family prosperity has been followed. Hence I like to name the child as Vardhamana keeping all these in mind”. It had been agreed upon by the queen. Hence the child had been named as Vardhamana.

With the growth of vardhamana the prosperity of the family began to increase. New characteristics have been acquired by the growing child.

Tendencies he had acquired in the previous birth began to grow thin in the case of the prince.

The child neither wept nor laughed and he remained calm and quiet. A strange aura shone on his face and he remained in a contented mood always. Like a growing child he was quite active but never restive. The nurses were perplexed sometimes with his serious face. Level of his consciousness had far surpassed the growth of his body.

People felt him to be a problem child those who looked at him in a cursory way. But all problems had been outgrown by Vardhamana himself. He appeared to be unattached to everything even as a small child. Towards food and play he did not seem to have any physical attractions.

Towards his great future this state of his being hinted through and through. To be devoid of any kind of attraction for him his spiritual growth made all the things of the world appear.

SPIRITUAL VIGOUR AND FEARLESSNESS

Generally on two factors success in life depends. They are wisdom and energy.

Power uncontrolled by wisdom is dangerous where as knowledge unattended by power is pitiable.

A man becomes fearless with the harmonious combination of the two mentioned above. In equal proportion Vardhamana possessed both. By any kind of fear he was never touched.

To play the “Amalaki” game with them, once his playmates persuaded him. In the garden of the house they played. Towards the tree all the children ran. Vardhamana climbed up the tree after overcoming everybody. He saw a huge snake when he was coming down the tree coiling around the trunk of the tree. At the sight of vardhamana the snake hissed at. All the children ran away struck with fear. Vardhamana remained unruffled and strong. Disentangling it from the tree he threw it away after catching the snake. His playmates applauded him and vardhamana won the game.

The fearlessness and strength came to be recognized when vardhamana was only eight years old hardly even at that tender age. He began to exhibit the character of a Kshatriya being born in a family of Kshatriya. Born with the accumulated strength of sadhana he had performed in the course of his previous life. Everyone was impressed with the growth of his physical and spiritual strength. A proper synthesis of both leads to success and growth. In him vardhamana had both energy and strength. At the age of eight he was sent to school. According to some he never went to school.

Vardhamana was very much devoted and obedient to parents and he was a very respectful child. He was conversant with what was being taught at school as his extra-ordinary and extra-sensory knowledge had developed already. Simply because he had been commanded to do so he joined the school.

The king was told that vardhamana completed his schooling and there was no necessity further for him to go to school.

MARRIAGE & DETACHMENT

Time is never at a stand-still and it moves on and on. Vardhaman stood at the threshold of youth as he grew up. A very healthy beautiful and strong personality had been commanded by him. The time to think of the marriage of the young prince has come. The matter was under consideration between the queen and the king. With the proposal of marriage of his daughter with vardhamana king of Kalinga sent an envoy to Siddhartha. At the proposal there was little surprise as they knew that their son was too much devoted to the self. In the world of his own consciousness Vrdhamana mostly lived. To accept the proposal of the Kalinga king the desire to see the line of succession compelled the king and queen. Carrying the message of acceptance of the proposal of marriage the envoy returned.

The prince found himself in a strange situation. When his father informed vardhamana of the acceptance of the proposal of the latter’s marriage. Trying to feel his oneness with it, he had been absorbed in the spiritual reality. His spiritual perceptions had not been disturbed at all at the news. Marriage implies duality in which one has to enter into worldly relations with another being.

Surrounded by the relatives and all kinds of prosperity and comforts the prince lived in the royal palace. But his mind turned inwards into the depth of the self and his tendencies had become spiritualized. When his spiritual consciousness is underdeveloped man’s ego remains shared by the attractions of the world. Sensuous pleasure do not attract him any more once the spirit wakes up and the world begins to be tasteless. The spirit of vardhamana had attained this stature. Like the lotus in the pond he lived in the world unattached. To the amuzement of his parents and relatives vardhamana had his own spiritual kingdom to rule and he seemed to live in a descent world. In the matter of food, he observed strict austerity and this was resented by all. To appreciate his abstinence they failed miserably. Similarly the attitude of compassion and equality could not be understood which the prince adopted towards everyone. To develop an authoritarian attitude as a prince had been expected by the people. That everyone should swimwith the current of time is the belief of the people. But there are some who would like to swim against the current and they like to toe an independent line. For their relatives and friends such people become a problem. To see him behave like a traditional prince was the expectation of the parents.  But the prince sought new horizens as he had become enlightened. Hence it was impossible to become traditional in his attitude as it was expected by others on his part.

THE GREAT RENUNCIATION

Producing changes in the states of all things the wheel of time revolves ceaselessly. The child becomes young poised on this wheel. Into old age young man enters. At the age of twenty eight the young prince arrived. His parents passed away having grown old. As a result of their death the royal family was plunged into sorrow. Their death did not affect the prince at all though he loved his parents. To the pleasures & pains the spiritual heights he had attained made him averse as he was not a sheer philosopher. A direct perception of truth he had and hence he did not take death seriously. It was to him a normal happening in life. The ties of affection broke which bound him to his parents.

The great desire to renounce the world arose in him. His elder brother had been apprised on the matter. To hear of his plans, Nandivardan was shocked. He began to weep and his whole being trembled.

When he was called upon to face a new situation he hardly recovered from the shock of the death of his parents. Perhaps his brother thought it the right time to renounce the world to get a relief of sorrow by the death of his parents as his mind had been seized of a spiritual fervour. A mood of aversion to the world is produced generally by the death of dear and near ones. It is all the more prone to the desire for renunciation one who has a spiritual inclination. Nandivardhan felt nervous. He did not want to part the company of his brother at this stage as he would not be able to stand two successive shocks.

To cause any kind of inconvenience to anybody prince vardhamana did not like. His mind was full of love and compassion. For another two more years the situation forced him to remain with the family. A strong and strange state of mind had been passed through. During these two years he was neither a house holder nor a recluse. In a state of complete surrender of all worldly activities he realised his self and remained calm and quite.

With all the living beings of the world he had developed a feeling of complete equality, as he saw life in raw water and left using it. His sense organ had been controlled completely as he had mastered the process of meditation with a full control over his speech. His life was that of a recluse although he lived in the family as he still had the responsibilities of his family on him.

His mind remained occupied with the idea of renouncing the world though he led a worldly life. His conscience was busy planning a friar’s career for himself, though he was surrounded by the grandeur of royal family. In the hands of a few he did not like wealth accumulation. A part of his income he would give up every morning to the needy gladly. For a full year this was continued. The course of Dana (giving) ended and that of aparigraha (non-possession) was to begin.

Imposition of the time limit was over on him by his brother as the two years passed by vardhamana felt it was time for him to renounce the world mundane. He then placed his proposal again before his brother to leave the family who agreed with him.

In the third quarter of the tenth day of the first half of the lunar month of Margasirsa in the Hemant season the great exit took place at the “Muhurta” called “vijay”.

For the last two days prince vardhamana had been fasting as he had a peculiar way of fasting. He had realized that his body was entirely different from his soul.

Living for the body is no life for him. To liberate the soul from the bondage of the world he lives in. Hence it is necessary to free oneself from the limitation imposed by the body in order that the soul might be liberated. This process of liberation is a part and parcel of fasting which leads a man into the independent world of the soul.

The prince renounced the world as he attained this state of self enlightenment. By rejoicing in the family vardhamana’s renunciation was marked. With the music of instruments the sky was sounded as the young girls sang songs of joy. Auspicious hymns were recited by birds. A happy commotion was there everywhere. But in his own loneliness vardhamana sat engulfed. He was forgetful of the noisy 

atinosphere. 

For the jnatakhanda forest the prince left home seated in a palanquin. A crowd of thousands of people escorted him to the forest including nandivaradhana and Suparsva. Alighted from the palanquin the prince stood under an ashok tree and took off his princely garments. He became a nirgranth. Everyone began to gaze at the prince and the strain of music stopped at once. In a strange calmness nature seemed to be engulfed. The prince stood looking towards the horizon between the east and west and plucked off the hair of his head. His face beamed with joy and jubilation. With a divine light shone on his head, with joy and enthusiasm the whole atmosphere was pulsated.

“I bow to the perfect beings” – told the prince folding both his hands. His egotism, egoism and attachment disappeared as soon he had dedicated himself to the attainment of liberation. To follow the principle of equanimity he resolved whole heartedly not to do any action born of attachment or aversion as attachment and aversion give birth to inequality and sin.

A nirgrantha renounces passion and unfettered. He is free from inhibitions. In the presence of the people of Kshyatriya KUNDAPURA prince vardhamana assumed the status of sramana vardhamana and he no more belonged to the kingdom he had left behind. An empire he had entered where there were no rulers nor the ruled. He had entered into a new family where there was no distinction between “mine” and “thine”. To see him leave the boundaries of kshyatriya Kundapura thousands of people shed tears.

Solemn parting was very sad. To treat one as our own till he lives with us trust and treat him as a stranger as soon as he had estranged himself from us is really a strange custom of the world.

To the people of Kshyatriya Kundapura sramana vardhamana now appeared to be a stranger.

A small speech followed afterwards from sramana vardhamana to the people who were with him.

“I am a Sramana now. Above the limitation of the state and the nation I have risen. Living within its boundaries you are the citizens of a state. I am not surrounded by any boundary now as I am a wandering ascetic. You cannot accompany me now. If so how far?  He went ahead alone leaving his followers and he transcended the limitations of time & space. Sramana Vardhamana installed himself as the emperor of the kingdom of spirit.

MAHAVIRA SAMANA & SRAMANA

SAMANA & SRAMANA

In Prakrit language there is a word “Samana” sramana is its sanskrit form which has three meanings.

1. SRAMA:- One who exerts himself or has diligence (srama)
2. SAMA :- One who maintains equanimity and is calm (sama)
3. SAMA :- One who treats every one equally (sama).

In these three main principles the Sramana culture is grounded namely exertion equanimity and equality. From the beginning of civilization it has been engaged in the practice and dissemination of these three principles. This culture had been developed by Bhagavan Rasbha and he was its pioneer. Bhagavan  Parsva was the ardent follower of this tradition. He was the prince of Varanasi and he was the twenty third Tirthankara. He was born in 877 B.C. and was initiated in 847 B.C.

That Ahimsha came to Occupy the character of a collective spiritual discipline and underwent  a qualitative change mainly due to twenty third tirthankara. Ahimsa was regarded as a personal discipline before Parsva Nath and it was due to his efforts it was transferred into a social force.

The old concept of sramana is the modern version of Ahimsa.

Three meanings are included here concerning  the term Sramana. One cannot be a follower of ahimsa if he does earn his living by his own exertion nor can one who does not value peace in life. One cannot practise non- violence if he does not practise equality.

To the movement of Ahimsa Parsva Nath gave a rightful momentum as a result of which the people of Kasi, Kausala, Sindhu, Anga, Sauvira, Kuru & Panchal came under his influence.

As the first showers of the summer rain are welcome to those sweating in the heat of the summer sun in the same way the soothing message of Ahimsa came as a great relief to the victims of the wide-spread violence. By Bhagavan Parsva the movement made powerful again which had once grown weak. As a social ideal it made him very popular with his campaign to establish Ahimsa. Above the limitations of the old sramana tradition this made him rise automatically. He became a cosmopolitan figure at length. In 777 B.C. he attained nirvana.

With light the rising sun floods the whole world but everything is again plunged into darkness when the sun sets. Everyday this drama is enacted. Like the rising sun Parsva Nath appeared on the stage of history and with the light of ahimsa he enlivened the world. But the movement of ahimsa began to grow thin after his nirvana as his followers became ineffective and inactive. By the light of the sun every particle of the world shines. This elementary truth may be kept in mind. But the particles grow dark as soon as the sun sets. The fate of the history of mankind has been similar to this. With the advent of a great man on the scene thereopens a new chapter in the history. But soon after his death historical progress slows down and ultimately comes to a standstill.

With their own light those who illumine the world seldom shine by their own light. After the nirvana of Bhagavan Parsva hardly two hundred years had gone by when the steady onward movement of Ahimsa lost its force. That they began to await eagerly a new dawn to appear so much so that the dark forces of inaction, inequality and disquiet engulfed the people.

To make its presence felt everywhere the spring came with its followers. The forest trees began to stir with life having clad in the happy and colourful garments of new born leaves. With their sweet smell and spiring breeze it carried to distant corners of the fragrance laden flowers filled with atmosphere. In this atmosphere the sun rises in the morning of the thirteenth day of bright half of the lunar month of Chaitra.

A son was given birth to by Trisala. At a wonderful moment a wonderful baby was born. Everywhere there was cheerfulness. The parents and kinsmen of the child were very happy and began to beam with joy and jubilation.

Sometimes we say the birth of a child is an accident. But it is not so. In the endless chain of destiny it is a definite link. That a new born child comes all alone it is true, to the world bare handed. That its subtle body and mind contains indefinite potentialities is also equally true. Thirty years later it was this child came to be known as Mahavira. Overnight nobody can aspire to become a Mahavira. To build a personality of courage and valour it takes ages. In the case of Mahavira it had happened so also.

An old story is there on this score. Achala and Triprstha were the two sons of the king Prajapati of Potanpur. In the court a dance performance had been arranged one day. The absorbing art of the dancers had been watched by the king, the princes and the courtiers with great interest. Disturbing the performance & show suddenly a visitor entered the court and went straight to the king. The performance was suspended. The king stood up to receive the visitor and began to listen to him.

The prince Triprastha felt offended and enquired about the visitor. He was surprised how his father had given utmost attention to the visitor by suspending the performance of the court. That the visitor was the envoy of the king Asvagriva who was the overlord of the king Prajapati was not known to the prince. Hence when he knew the fact, the prince was put to silence. The prince accosted the envoy when the latter was about to return and the latter was warned not to disturb such functions in future. For the time being the envoy pocketed the insult and went home quietly. He went to the sovereign king and complained against the prince as to how he had been insulted. Asvagriva was enraged. To guard the rice fields Asvagriva dispatched another envoy  to potanpur to order Prajpati. In a dilemma Prajapati was put. The prince had been conveyed that the envoy avenged himself for the insult meted out to him by the prince and as a result of which he had been ordered to guard the rice fields out of turn. The prince promised to meet the situation himself and asked his father not to worry on the matter. To depute him to the rice fields he requested his father.

With a few soldiers, both the princes arrived at the rice fields. That a lion was at large stalking the valley had been informed by the man in charge of the fields and entreated the princes to protect the farmers.

Prince Triprstha decided to locate the lion immediately thinking it to be a long drawn out affair. He arrived at the lion’s den with the help of the local people. The lion was out with the beat of the soldiers. Prince Triprstha preferred to meet the lion bare – handed as he was a dare-devil. He threw away his weapons while jumping down from the chariot. The frantic lion rushed at the prince with a ferocious roaring sound. Like a worn out piece of cloth, the prince caught the jaws of the lion with both his hands and tore the beast into two to the amazement of the onlookers. The officer of the forest was informed afterwards. He was told to inform Asvagriva that the lion had been killed. The prince returned home afterwards.

 As the son of Sidhartha this very prince Triprstha was born after having gone through several cycles of birth and rebirths. In new field of operation his valour found in a unique way. Towards spiritual achievements it was now oriented. It had assumed spiritual dimensions. It was not an accidental change and yet. In the course of numerous previous births the new orientation was the logical conclusion and outcome of the sadhana performed by the soul. That every event has a chain of causes behind it. Let us not forget the same.

MOTHER’S DREAM

Nandivardhana was the son of Queen Trisala as her first son. As the second son the soul of Triprstha was born to her. On the right of her conceiving the child she felt an unprecedented joy. In a half waking state she saw a series of significant dreams. That she felt something extra ordinary she woke Siddhartha and told. “In my dream I saw an elephant and a bull and several other things. A very pleasant sensation has been felt. With light and joy the whole atmosphere was throbbing. I “Expect some extraordinary event to happen she reported to her husband”.

The situation had been sensed by Siddhartha and remarked by him. “You have seen a very auspicious dream – darling. To our family you will bring fortune as you are a fortunate lady. Queens’s joys knew no bounds. She retired to her bed – chamber in a state of exhilaration. One who has seen auspicious dream should not go to sleep again after one has awakened from that dream as per the saying goes. Hence for the rest of the night she remained awake.

To the far end of the earth the rays of the sun pierced. To the days business everyone has applied himself. With the queen the king sat in the audience. To summon the sooth Sayers to the audience he called upon the chief courtier.

Before the king the sooth Sayers presented themselves. On the queen’s dreams the king began to consult them.

The sooth Sayers examined the contents of the dreams dreamt by the queen, who had seen a very significant dream. She would give birth to a son who would be a Chakravarti. Her face flushed with the fore cast about her son becoming a Chakravarti. The king was very happy. Expectations are more thrilling than actual happening.

In the imagination of the king the picture of the Vaisali republic changed into the picture of an Empire which was grand indeed. But Siddhartha was stunned to imagine with the establishment of the expected Empire centering the values and ideals that would be practised in a gana – democracy. The freedom of man would be the ideals of democracy. In the life of the gana Siddhartha had been striving for the strengthening of these ideals and he had never been enamoured of the idea of the Empire. It was horrible to imagine his own son would destroy those ideals for which he became perplexed.

The readwigs had been analyzed by the sooth Sayers as follows.

“After a careful study of the dream of the queen, our prophecy needs an amendment”. Impatiently the king interfered and asked about the prophecy. The sooth Sayers told clearly the baby would be a Chakravarti no doubt, but he would preserve the ideals and values of the ganatantra of Vaisali. He would be a Dharma-Chakravarti. Who will be the emperor of the kingdom of religion. He will develop the ideals of Ahimsa.

Also he will develop the idea of co-existence, non-possessiveness, freedom and relativism and he will be a great exponent of all these values.

The perplexity of Siddhartha was over. He sighed a sigh of relief and thanked the sooth Sayers. Than the king the queen was no less happy. Into a pious mood their worldly joy changed. With passion it is alloyed. Perfectly pure is spiritual joy. By sorrow it can never be followed.

The sooth Sayers were amply rewarded by the king who applied himself to his routine duties.

THE SOCIO POLITICAL ECONOMIC RELIGIOUS CONDITION IN INDIA BEFORE THE ADVENT OF MAHAVIRA

THE SOCIO POLITICAL ECONOMIC RELIGIOUS CONDITION IN INDIA BEFORE THE ADVENT OF MAHAVIRA

Dharma has no beginning and it will have no end also. Whether dharma (religion) is eternal if it is the question then the answer is this. Yes, it is. But the terms Jaina and dharma are not eternal. Sometimes they came into vogue and in course of time they might disappear. Jain tradition is indeed ancient, but the word Jaina is not very old. The older Sramana dharma is the originator of the present Jain Dharma. In other words the Jain Dharma is the successor of the older Sramana Dharma. In Indian philosophy and religion the Sramana tradition has a hoary past. By the arhats, it was developed and enriched. The first arhat was Rsabha Dev according to Jainism.

Rasbha Dev was a pioneer in the field of agriculture, commerce and trade including crafts as a king. For the good of the subjects he developed as an example in all the aforesaid areas. A social organization and administrative machinery had been set up by him. In pursuit of spiritual attainments he became an ascetic. As an arhat he was canonized. When human civilization was in its infancy these events belonged to that point of time.

In organized communities primitive people were being settled in villages and arhat Rsabha lit the fire into every heart which burnt in himself. Till the time of Parsva nath, the twenty third tirathankar, the tradition of the arhats flowed. Parsva nath was a historical figure. The earlier arhats are considered to be pre-historic.

Collective spiritual discipline was vitalized by Bhagvan Parsva nath. The practice of self mortification based on ignorance had been opposed by him. A spiritual orientation had been given by him. He had to face serious difficulties during his life time because of his determined opposition to sheer mortification, however painful they may be. One who treads the path of friendliness and non-violence must oppose himsa and face the consequences. In his mission Parsva nath succeeded. During his period the Sramanas started wielding considerable influence and it was the influence of Ahimsa. Hence he was very popular among his followers both Brahmins and sramanas and his greatness was acknowledged.

For PARSVA Bhagvan Mahavir used the epithet PURUSADANIYA which means leader of the people or worshipped by the people. The philosophy of spiritualism and selfrealisation as against materialism and natural of worship had been popularized and strengthened by Bhagavan PARSVA whose followers were the parents of Mahavira and his maternal uncle CHETAKA, the head of the Licchavi republic of Vaisali. This was a great achievement which was inherited by Mahavira and Goutam Buddha and several other arhats of the Sramana system.

The time cycle has been divided into two categories in the sacred books of Jains. The ascending spiral and the descending spiral, during each of which twenty four Tirthankaras appeared in India and preached the religion.

In the descending spiral which is running of course now 24 Tirthankars appeared of whom Shri Rishava Deva was the first and Sri Mahavira was the last. The religion of the sramanas or of the Nirgranthas, currently called Jainism had been preached by the Tirthankaras.

Except for the slight variations which can be sometimes remarked in the rites and observances, all the Tirthankaras have preached the same religion.

To a brief consideration of the political, economic, social and religious condition of the then India it can be enumerated at the time of Mahavira’s Birth.

THE POLITICAL CONDITION

Into a congeries of many small independent states India was divided then. Extending over the whole or even the major part of the then India there was no great empire. Due to disastrous war of Mahabharata, the power of the Kshyatriyas had been extinct almost. To enable a hero or an heroic family there had not yet had a revival powerful enough to establish a great empire. Even on very trifling grounds the rulers of petty states engaged in frequent conflicts among themselves. As a result much of the power of the Kshyatriyas left no opportunity to any king for acquiring any considerable strength. The time we are referring to was the end of seventh century B.C. and the beginning of the sixth century B.C.

Following kingdoms were there in the north India at that time.

1. Gandhara, 2. Sindhu – Sauvira3. Avanti, 4. Matsya, 5. Kuru, 6. Panchala, 7. Vatsa, 8. Malla, 9. Koshala, 10. Kasi, 11. Vajji, 12. Videh, 13. Anga & 14. Magadha.

But we come across the names of about 25 kingdoms which were known as Aryan Kingdoms. There was not a single kingdom among these which could establish its sovereignty over the others. Magadha was able to acquire some strength, it is true no doubt. As to extend the frontiers of its kingdom to any remarkable extent, it could not become so strong even then. It could not annex the kingdom of videha to its own though Magadha defeated the Lichhavis in the battle of Vaishali by destroying the city of Vaishali.

In those days most of the kingdoms were monarchical. In existence there was also democracy, combined with some other families to establish a kingdom the families could not protect their own independence by their individual strength. From among its members each family or sub- clan at first selected a leader. Subsequently such leaders were addressed as kings or Rajas who exercised royal powers over these families or sub – clans. To form greater kingdoms, these petty chieftains combined and selected from among themselves one as the supreme ruler. Relating to war and defence etc the kings of all these clans used to meet together to discuss and decide important questions. There is a mention of nine sub – clans of the Mallas and nine of the Lichhavis in the Jain Scriptures. The supreme head of this federal democracy was the king CHETAKA. Some other democratic kingdoms also were mentioned in, Jain and Buddhist literatures.

In the eastern region there were two systems of government. Anga, Magadha & Vatsa were the monarchies. On the other hand Kasi, Videha and Kausala were republics. The republics of the Vajjis or  Lichhavis and that of Mallas were quite well known. These republics were later developments of monarchies and the precursors of democracies. With a view to consolidating their political power the Lichhavis founded their republics and its credit goes to CHETAKA for its foundations. He was a wise and valorous king of Videha and he was the president of the whole Republic.

The vast Indian Sub – continent was divided into a number of tiny kingdoms about two thousand and five hundred years ago. But there was nobody competent enough to bind these states into a single political unit although geographical expanse of the country was much larger than what it is today at that particular point of time. There was no central political leadership nor emperor or Chakravarti as we understand to day.

The biggest unit was videha with its Capital at Vaishali, which was divided into three zones. With golden domes the first zone consisted of seven thousand residential houses. With silver domes the middle of the town consisted of fourteen thousand houses. With copper domes the third zone consisted of twenty one thousand houses. These three zones were inhabited by the high, middle and lower classes respectively. Vaisali was the Capital of the entire Vajji Republic. Each at a distance of two miles from the other it was enclosed within four city walls.

It had several ramparts and entrance gates. This republic was a confederation of six clans. They were “Ugras”, the bhojas “the Rajanyasa”, “The IKSYAKUS (the Lichhavis)”. “The Jnatas” and the Kauravas”.

Into two units the Malla Republic was divided. One in the north – west with its Capital at Kusinara and the other in the south - east with PAVA as its Capital. In the east towards the river Gandaka it extended as far. Upto Gorakhapur it extended in the west. It extended up to Nepal and the river Ganga respectively in the north and the south.

Its GANA NAYAKAS were the members of the powerful Vajji Republic, although it was an autonomous political unit.

In the north of the Gangas which divided the Vajji from Magadha the centre of the vajji Republic lay in Videha.

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

In the Universal law of nature, Change is immutable. By this law the rise and fall of human beings are determined along with their strength & weakness of movements. Within a couple of centuries of his nirvan the movement of ahimsa and self – discipline began to lose its momentum launched by Bhagavan Parsva during his life time. Bhagavan MAHAVIRA found social values in the melting pot when he started his career. At that time by brutal force the society was governed and ruled. Kings had become deified. To acknowledge their sovereignty their subjects were forced in order to bear the yoke of tyranny as a matter of duty.

For the kings that their edicts to be treated as divine decrees the royal priests had whipped up such a psychosis of respect. To merely invite vengeance in the society was to oppose them. In the society wealth had began to be worshipped. In the name of the rich and poor, the society was divided. Human beings were converted into slaves after they were purchased. They were treated as cattle or the beasts of burden. In any way they liked, that the masters were entitled to punish them. Between men and men royal power and the power of wealth forced a division. Human equality and unity became eclipsed on the whole in the society as principle. Social discrimination had been encouraged in casteism. Untouchables were the Sudras. According to the status of his caste, power and wealth man’s worth was measured. Human intelligence came to be taken in that line only. In the wealthy and that of inferiority in the poor this regulated in a sense of superiority. In developing such a situation, the popular faith in the distorted doctrine of karma contributed its share. With the suffering in this life, the wretched were supposed to have been born with the evil effects of their misdeeds, in the past life which they must pay for. With patience they were expected to bear their present miseries.

Education was limited to the rich few only in those days. By physical labour only the common man lived silently. To raise his voice against injustice he was not at all awakened and entitled.

At that point of time two main traditions of religion were there in the society. One is Sramana and the other is Vedic. Into several sanghas or monastic orders the Sramanas were organized. The most highly enlightened leaders of these organizations were termed as Tirthankaras. In Vedic tradition there were several sects also. The Vedic tradition RSIS were thesists while the sages of the Upanishadas professed the philosophy of the Brahmins. Some of the Sramanas Acharyas were also theists who professed the philosophy of Nirvana and Atma.

In resolving the profound mysteries of the Universe many religious teachers were seriously engaged. Through meditation and ascetic practices some of them tried to comprehend truth. Others attempted to do so through worship and spells. All violence committed for the propitiation of the gods as proper and legitimate and performed animal sacrifice in case of those who worshipped Sakti, the cosmic power and practised charms looked upon. In order to secure heaven rituals were performed. That the ritual of bathing in water led to self purification as it was believed then. Many ascetics performed penance by beating their bodies with the aggregate of five fires burnt around their bodies under the scorching heat of the sun on the basis of the doctrine that the mortification of the body leads to liberation. On the sharp edges of the iron nails some of the ascetics went to the extent of lying down.

Predominantly it was an age of religion. In the life of the spirit the kings and their subjects had deep belief. Than that of the state the status of religion was much higher. Though they were in a negligible minority, there were also those who repudiated religion though they did not command respect in the society. It came to acquire considerable prestige for those who practised that is why. In all the sects the number of ascetics was fairly large. From village to village hundreds of monks were seen wondering in groups, though they belonged to diverse sects and sub – sects engaged each other in metaphysical discussions to understand each other’s point of view.

The subduing of passions as indispensable was not looked upon by the votaries of sakti sadhakas. The spiritualists considered it, Sine qua non of course. Without getting freedom from the passions of attachment and aversion, they therefore maintained that one could not attain liberation. It is one of the instincts of man naturally is the attachment to material comforts and sensuous pleasures. It leads mankind to clash of interests. To seek for spiritual solutions as by necessity people are driven when conflicts reach their climax. To the advent of a great spiritual leader this situation is a prelude in order to lift the society to a higher stage of spiritual development. Society takes a leap when the psychological background for a change has been set up.

ECONOMIC CONDITION

India was then far advanced in commerce. Merchants used to go to various foreign countries for trade in big ships from the ports situated on the banks of great rivers & seas. To such sea – borne trade there is abundant reference in Jain literature. Laden with various merchandise which they collected from the country the traders used to embark on sea – voyage in great ships well – guarded and accompanied by many attendants. They would sell their own commodities in the foreign country and purchase special commodities from that country not available elsewhere. In another country they would sell these special commodities and earned plenty of wealth in this way.

There is a mention of traders who had about forty million gold coins buried in the earth, forty million invested in commerce in the Jain scriptures. They had four pastures each of which boasted ten thousand heads of cattle and other domestic animals with forty million worth of property. Much more riches of other kinds had been possessed by them also. In many storied beautiful buildings these wealthy traders lived in pomp and splendour luxuriously. Surrounded by numerous attendants. They were maintaining luxurious harems of their choice with beautiful women up to hundreds. In such voluptuous luxury their children could not know when the day goes and the night comes.

Than the foreign trade inland trade was no whit less extensive. Merchants used to carry cartloads of merchandise from one part of the country to another for commerce accompanied by escorts. By means of boats between places situated on the banks of rivers commerce was carried on in this way. Untold wealth was earned by merchants by all kinds of trade and commerce. But the economic condition of the lower classes of the people was very pathetic and it was as low as that of the higher classes was high.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Everywhere the social order founded by Brahmins prevailed. They exercised an undisputed authority in society as they were at the top. With war like pursuits, the Kshatriyas were occupied and in the hands of the Vaishayas the entire commerce and economic arrangements were kept intact. Sudras were engaged in servile labour. They were poor and neglected being the people of the lowest strata of society. Caste had become hereditary. The Brahmins were fond of pomp and show and had become formalistic. That is why the word Brahmin came to be interpreted in a new way in the Jain and Buddhist scriptures. Abundant wealth was earned by vaishyas and that is why they wallowed in luxury and all sorts of vices. The condition of women was good it cannot be said at all. As a domestic property among all properties, wives were regarded. Rich people and Kings had many wives. Women were carried away as a booty during the times of war. As the objects of their personal enjoyment some women were included by the plunderers. And some of them were sold in the market publicly. As many male members died in the battles, polygamy may have prevailed on account of this fact pertaining to the excessive luxury and sensuality of the people.

Among the women of the higher classes there was some prevalence of education but more among those of the lower classes. Men of the first three higher classes received good education. Some knowledge of warfare was acquired by the Vaishyas.

RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

Vedic ritualism prevailed everywhere with Brahminism in great vogue. Rich Brahmins and Kshyatriyas performed sacrifices with great pomp and ceremony in every town and village. Thousand innocent animals were killed ruthlessly without any hindrance. Monism of the upanishad began to be preached among the mass. The number of sramana ascetics was also increasing who denounced the slaughter of animals in the sacrifices. They preached the religion of Ahimsa.

Of the community of the NIRGRANTHAS founded by Lord Parshwanath there are many descriptions of the Sadhus described in the jain scriptures. Only 250 years before the Nirvan of Mahavira Parshwanath had attained Nirvan. Hence about the existence of the sramanas community founded by Parshwanath there can be no room for any doubt. As a result of constant wars and battles accumulation of excessive wealth among the rich it would not be unreasonable to assume that a reaction had set in the society on the miserable plight of the people of the lower classes caused by the hatred of the Brahmins and social persecution etc. We find many religious communities Cropping up during this period because of the reaction. There is mention of six Tirthankars in the Buddhist scriptures. They are as follows – 1. Sanjaya Velatthiputta, 2. PAKUDHA KACHCHAYANA, 3. AJITA KESHAKAMVALI, 4. MANKHALIPUTTA GOSHALAKA, 5. PURNA KASHYAPA, 6. NIGANTHA NATAPUTTA or MAHAVIRA.

There were 63 religious communities. Religious communities have been classified into four principal divisions and 363 sub-divisions in the Jain scriptures. The former being Kriyavadins those who believed that it is the soul that acts and is entangled in the web of its own karma. Those who disbelieved the existence of soul are Akriyavadins. They are entangled in Karma or action.

AJNANAVADINS are those who believed that tapas or austerities alone could lead to liberation and not knowledge. Vinayavadins are those who regarded salvation as attainable by right conduct only. The killings of animals in the scarifies had been denounced by the preachers of all these religions.

Hence there was a strong reaction against the excessive luxury and voluptuousness of the rich and the oppression of the lower classes had set in accompanied by an intense religious seeking. The Ajivikas went naked and were engaged in harsh self-motification. We shall be able to conceive something of the ideal if we view Mahavira’s life of renunciation, self-discipline and austeries in this perspective.